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Index: Personality Theories, Types and Tests
the birkman method®The Birkman Method® consists of ten scales describing motivations (Interests) and occupational preferences. It also has eleven scales describing 'effective behaviors' (Usual behaviors) and eleven scales describing interpersonal and environmental 'expectations' (Needs). A corresponding set of eleven derived scales describe the associated 'less than effective' (Stress) behaviors when expectations are not fulfilled. Together, these eleven scales are titled Components. In application, The Birkman Method® provides a method of improving personal and interpersonal effectiveness, articulating issues and resolving them, and revealing hidden assumptions that directly affect interpersonal effectiveness. The Birkman Method® notably:
The core of The Birkman Method® predicts significant behavioral and motivational patterns by asking respondents about personal and social perceptions. Dr Birkman confirmed that individuals don't react to the 'real' world, but rather to their perception of it. This is the scientific response to the adage, 'perceptions are reality'. Most researchers at the time were focused on 'why' respondents behaved the way they did. Dr Birkman was interested 'what' behaviors resulted from their perceptions. Specifically, Birkman identified work and business behaviors resulting from 'self' and 'other' perceptual responses. Ultimately, the Birkman Method® became a multifaceted, self-report tool that provides practical insights into everyday issues confronting adults as they live and work. It offers a unique way of discovering how individuals accomplish goals or miss opportunities.
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origins of the theory
Roger W Birkman PhD, began his exploration of individual differences of behavior and perception while pilot and pilot instructor. His experience with the impact that misperceptions – both visual and interpersonal - had on pilot performance and student learning led him to the study of psychology. By 1950, Birkman had developed a new method of assessment called the Test of Social Comprehension. It was empirically developed from workplace interviews and observations. The instrument was designed to measure the human characteristics that he saw influence perceptions, behaviors, and motivations in normally functioning adults. Eventually, Birkman met Roy B Mefferd Jr, who was a statistician/psychometrician. Mefferd was a colleague of H J Eysenck and Mefford also worked closely Raymond Cattel, creator of the 16PF. Mefferd was the first to analyze, modify and revise The Birkman Method using factor analysis. Over the years, many more PhD psychometricians have added to the research base.
Originally, Birkman developed the scale descriptions by comparing self report item results with descriptions of likes, dislikes, and behaviors provided by third parties. Birkman then matched self-report results, item by item, with these third party behavioral descriptions. Eventually, these scales and the relationships between these scales became the working model of perceptual and interest interactions.
During the 1960s, the assessment further integrated interests and occupational measurement. This integrated assessment came to be known as The Birkman Method®. Minor modifications and improvements occurred in the following decades. In 2008, The Birkman Method was updated to current standards by combining classical test theory and item test theory to review and update the instrument. Refer to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® for more information.
scales used in the method
interest scales
Interest scales describe an expressed motivational construct. Individuals with high scale values tend to prefer to be engaged in activities consistent with the commonly expected responsibilities of the interest scale meaning. The scales interact to form measures of general interest beyond measures of specific interest. The scale values measure intensity of desire to be involved with these activities, not skill or proficiency with these responsibilities.
The reporting style of the Interest scales ranks Interests in order of highest to lowest values. Long bars indicate a strong preference or attraction while short bars indicate minimal interest and possibly disinterest or avoidance. The following figure depicts a typical Interest profile for a respondent.
component scales
According to Birkman's research, the Components are the constructs that
significantly affect normal adults in the work environment. The following is a
list of the Components titles and descriptions:
acceptance
The Acceptance scales describe a sociability-based construct that addresses the manner of relating to people in groups. It includes the degree to which an individual wants to be talkative; enjoy people in groups; enjoy of social laughter; comfort in talking to strangers; enjoying parties and group activities; and approachability.
activity
The Activity scales describe a construct that addresses preferred pace of action and aspects of style, planning and decision making. This construct includes the degree to which an individual prefers action; quick thinking; and physical expression of energy.
advantage
The Advantage scales describe a construct that includes the degree to which an individual prefers to drive for personal rewards or to share in team rewards. This construct addresses the approach to idealism, and team vs. individual approaches to winning competitions and incentives. It also encompasses cautiousness about giving trust; involvement with money (as an incentive); and seeking personal advantage.
authority
The Authority scales address approaches to directing and influencing or persuading others in verbal exchanges. This construct describes the degree to which an individual wants to persuade; speak up; express opinions openly and forcefully; and/or argue.
challenge
Challenge involves the way in which a person approaches and understands the issues of socially correct behavior and especially social image. The scale addresses issues on managing social image and social expectation.
change
The Change Orientation refers to openness to new personal experiences. Individuals who score low tend to prefer repetitive effort, minimal personal disruptions, and predictable responsibilities. Individuals who score high tend to seek new experiences and explore novel approaches, even within stable environments.
empathy
The Empathy scales describe a construct the degree to which an individual is comfortable with emotional expression and involvement of feelings.
esteem
The Esteem scales describe a sensitivity-based construct that includes shyness; saying no; praising and being praised; sensitivity about correcting others or being corrected by others; getting one's feelings hurt or being embarrassed.
freedom
The Freedom scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual is more conventional or unconventional in their approach to solving issues.
structure
These scales describe an orderliness-based construct that includes the degree to which an individual insists on to giving or receiving clear direction; following instructions carefully; finishing tasks; dealing with detailed tasks; working for accuracy; and using systematic approaches.
thought
The Thought scales describe a construct concerning the degree to which an individual approaches forming conclusions and making decisions; concerns for making the right decision the first time; and concerns over the consequences of those decisions.
construction of the component scales
This section provides one example of the scoring of The Birkman Method®. For the purpose of explaining this approach, let's create a fictitious Component named Handedness. Low scores indicate a left-handed approach to solving dexterity problems and high scores indicate right-handed preferences. The following scale uses numbers to indicate the degree to which the left hand is preferred.
Handedness: From a Left-Hander's Perspective
Conversely, we could explain Handedness from the right-handers perspective using the same scale. If the Handedness score (or bandwidth) is between 1 and 9, the right hand is never used and, by default, the left hand is always used (unless hurt).
Handedness: From a Right-Hander's Perspective
Scores of 1-9 and 90-99 are the pure forms of opposing preferences; they are differences of kind. For some individuals, the pure forms are more than 'preferences'. They are often viewed as the 'right' way. In terms of application, these 'differences of kind' can lead to one or more individuals becoming judgmental or unable to see things from the 'other' perspective. As you might suspect, the three middle bands (scores of 10-39, 40-60 and 61-89) are differences of degree, that is, they are blends of the two pure preferences.
Birkman crafted the expected Component scales so that individuals with 'low scale' values needed situations and relationships that precipitated one style of behavioral effectiveness and those who expected 'high scale' conditions that created the opposite productive style of response. Scales contained only descriptive information, no value judgment was attached to either end of any scale; therefore, both ends of the scale had equal value and positive cultural connotations. The scale values described how an individual needed to be treated or what type situation an individual prefers, not intensity or frequency of need alone.
The next section describes the aspects of each Component scale in more detail.
expectation (need) scales
Birkman found that when an individual was in a situation or relationship that proceeded in a manner that was consistent with their underlying expectations (needs) that individual felt good about self, was adaptable and exhibited positive, productive behaviors. When the relationship or situation was consistent with the individual's expectations, the individual frequently behaved in a productive manner. Birkman also found that when these expectations were not met, individuals tended to exhibit less-than-effective behaviors. This is consistent recent research in the related topic of Self-Regulation and the attending behavioral implications.
Ultimately, Birkman found that the conditions that created less-than-effective behaviors varied greatly. The only precise way for Birkman to define these 'frustrating' conditions was that they were not the expectation 'fulfillment' conditions. In other words, there were many ways to frustrate expectations but very few ways to fulfill them.
productive (usual) behavior scales
The typical, or usual, productive behaviors are expressed in a variety of situations and are readily observable by others. These scales describe an individual's effective style of dealing with relationships and tasks. These behaviors are typically described as positive or effective (although it may not mean the goals are accomplished). Low scale values are described as approaching relationships or tasks in one manner and those with a high scale value are described as approaching them in an opposite but equally effective manner.
It is easy to envision two equally skilled individuals, one excellent at motivating using intangible rewards and someone else who motivates excellently using only tangible rewards. Theoretically, this is similar to the FIRO-B Elements® assessment, which assumes that an individual's behavior is independent of their desired environmental conditions.
less-than-effective (stress) behavior scales
Scale values indicate an individual's ineffective style of dealing with relationships or tasks. These behaviors are typically described as 'how he acts when he is under stress,' or 'how she behaves when she is frustrated'. Within The Birkman Method®, this non-productive behavior might be practically productive in the short term, but costly in terms of relationships and long term effectiveness. In essence, there might be bodies along the way to achieving the objective. Individuals often report that they are not pleased with themselves after they use these 'less-than-productive' behaviors.
Again, scale values indicate the style of behavior, not level of ineffectiveness.
Note: Further insights into the causes of various less-than-productive behaviors have recently been studied by researchers within the self-regulation domain.
the birkman method® and MBTI® comparison
In 2008, CPP and Birkman International teamed together to develop the correlation tables between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step II Facet Scales. For a complete comparison between both the MBTI® and MBTI® Step II, please refer to the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method®.
similarities and differences found in the study
Both The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® are non-clinical assessments. The technical manuals for both assessments have established and documented face, content, construct (convergent/divergent), and criterion-related validities. However, these two instruments have fundamentally different foundations and psychometric properties.
The MBTI® is an indicator of type. As such it does not measure the amount of a personality trait. Rather, the MBTI® sorts, or categorizes, individuals based on preference or type ('Bill prefers introversion.'), but not the strength or degree of preference ('Jane strongly prefers extraversion') nor degree of aptitude ('Harry is good at thinking'). The MBTI® is socially and environmentally independent, provides generic descriptions of productive and less-than-productive behaviors for each the sixteen possible types, and has no corresponding equivalent of the Birkman Expectations.
The Birkman Method® provides the degree of preference across eleven scales, and independently measures ten motivational factors. As well, The Birkman Method® reports on specific contextual factors which affect behavior (Expectations). Birkman reports contain thousands of productive and less-than-productive behavioral combinations and provide specific prescriptions for improving performance.
comparison between the birkman method® and the 'big five' factor model of personality
The Birkman Method® aligns with the FFM (Five Factor Model or 'Big Five' or OCEAN model), but also has sub-factors for Emotive, Social and Control Orientations. This provides additional insight into the personality and productiveness dynamics.
| FFM Constructs ('Big Five' or OCEAN model) | Birkman Orientations | Associated Birkman Components |
| Neuroticism | Emotive Orientation | Empathy, Thought, Activity |
| Extraversion | Social Orientation | Esteem, Acceptance |
| Conscientiousness | Process Orientation | Structure |
| Agreeableness | Control Orientation | Advantage, Authority |
| Openness | Change Orientation | Change |
appropriate uses for the birkman method®
The continuous trait-measurements, multi-dimensional properties, and predictive reporting provided by The Birkman Method® make it useful in decision-making and issues-based activities, such as hiring, selection, conflict resolution, personal development, leadership development, and team building.
birkman international - acknowledgements
I am grateful to Birkman International for their help in providing this summary.
For more about The Birkman Method® assessment or to purchase a copy of the 2008 Technical Manual for The Birkman Method® call (800) 215-2760 (USA) or email info@birkman.com. The 2008 Technical Manual contains the complete statistical analysis between The Birkman Method® and the MBTI® Step I and MBTI® Step II. The Technical Manual also covers the full developmental history, theoretical background, reliability and validity, empirical evidence, and norms for The Birkman Method® assessment. You may also visit the Birkman website at www.birkman.com for general information about Birkman International, Inc., The Birkman Method® assessment, and other products and services. For more about the MBTI® or MBTI® Step II or to obtain a copy of the technical manuals, visit www.cpp.com.
References/sources used in compiling the Birkman summary:
Birkman, R.W., Elizondo, Fabian, Lee, Larry G., Wadlington, Patrick L., Zamzow, Matt W. (2008). The Birkman Method® Manual. Houston, TX: Birkman International, Inc.
Birkman, R.W. (1961). Development of a personality test using social and self perception inventories. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Texas, Austin.
Birkman, R.W. (1997). True Colors. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, Inc.
Briggs Myers, Isabel, McCaulley, Mary H., Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L. (1998). A Guide to the Development and Use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator®. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc.
Pittenger, David J. (1993). Measuring the MBTI And Coming Up Short. Journal of Career Planning and Employment, November, pp. 48–52.
Quenk, Naomi L., Hammer, Allen L., Majors, Mark S. (2001). MBTI Step II Manual: Exploring the Next Level of Type with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Form Q. Mountain View, CA: CPP, Inc.
Quenk, Naomi L. (1993). Beside ourselves: Our hidden personality in everyday life. Palo Alto, CA: CPP, Inc.
Stricker, L.J. & J. Ross. (1964). An Assessment of Some Structural Properties of the Jungian personality Typology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 68, pp. 67-72.
source: www.businessballs.com
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